The overwhelming majority of the work carried out by CRIPSAT staff is geared to the eventual improvement of the science curriculum provided by primary schools.

The most obvious, current manifestation of this school curriculum orientation is the Nuffield Primary Science scheme. (Collins Educational, 1995). This scheme has been developed from a constructivist standpoint and is firmly grounded in the research carried out in the classroom within the SPACE project. (For details please see under 'Research').

In common with all of the research carried out by CRIPSAT, practising teachers have been centrally involved in the SPACE project and the data gathered was provided by primary pupils themselves.

Our most recent classroom research, in the domain of 'forces', informed the review of the National Curriculum in England and Wales. (see Forces Research)

A further development of the forces project was a collaborative classroom based enquiry into how teaching and learning of gravity might be optimised. This project was partially funded by TTA.

Curriculum materials for KS1, KS2 and early KS3 teaching of Forces are currently under development.

Review of CRIPSAT's work from Issue 13 of Research Intelligence, The University of Liverpool

In 1989, the UK introduced a 'National Curriculum', specifying levels of understanding which pupils should reach in a series of key stages. The levels specified for scientific understanding drew on research conducted by the University of Liverpool's Centre for Research in Primary Science and Technology. Since then, the Centre has developed many of the nationwide science tests administered to assess whether pupils are meeting the targets set by the National Curriculum.

Nurturing tomorrow's scientists

If you started in primary school in the 1980s, you probably didn't learn much about science while you were there. You might have spent time observing and drawing nature, but you probably didn't conduct investigations or learn to hypothesise, gather empirical evidence and draw conclusions.

It's different in state schools today: science lessons introduce key concepts from biology, chemistry and physics, and the principles underpinning scientific investigation - preparing the ground for dedicated classes in secondary school. Science is one of the National Curriculum's three core subjects, introduced in 1989 to improve the literacy, numeracy and scientific understanding of UK children.

For the first time, the National Curriculum specified the level of understanding which UK children were expected to reach in a series of 'key stages' and set targets for them to meet in annual, nationwide tests. The progression in conceptual understanding within the science levels was based on studies undertaken by Liverpool University's Centre for Research in Primary Science and Technology, in partnership with Kings College London.

Key role for drawing

CRIPSAT specialises in educational development and design with a strong empirical base. Our approach involves research, curriculum development and evaluation, says CRIPSAT's director, Professor Terry Russell, and our outputs are designed to promote the professional development of teachers, as well as childrens' learning.

In 1985 CRIPSAT initiated the first in a series of empirical studies designed to shed light on the ways in which children's understanding of scientific concepts and processes develops. There are two principal schools of thought regarding the way children learn. One holds that the psychological processes involved in step changes in cognitive ability operate across the board, so progress in one area goes hand in hand with progress in other areas. The other holds that this is not necessarily the case and it is necessary to examine children's understanding of each key concept. CRIPSAT's own research tends to support this second school of thought.

Even the youngest pupils bring with them particular views of how the world works, and they construct their own meanings on the basis of these views, says Terry Russell. It's vital for teachers to understand the initial views children have at different stages of their development, and how these views adapt and develop.

CRIPSAT often uses drawings to tease out children's understanding of key concepts. Let's take forces acting on the world as an example, says Terry Russell. These include gravity, magnetism, electrical forces, reaction forces, upthrust and pressure in liquids and gasses, pushing and pulling, and so on. Adults have no difficulty using arrows to indicate the direction of a particular force, and multiple arrows to indicate multiple ‚ and possibly conflicting ‚ forces. We might also vary the size of the arrows to indicate relative force strength.

If you ask a child to depict force in this manner, you gain valuable insights into their understanding. You can see how far they have progressed and whether they have misunderstood something. You can adopt a similar approach to concepts like growth ‚ and the resulting drawings might reveal that an individual child has an advanced understanding of one concept, but less advanced understanding of the other. It's very helpful for teachers.

National assessments

The UK's decision to introduce a National Curriculum was taken part of the way through CRIPSAT's early studies, and the National Curriculum Council (NCC) drew on its interim results. The Council subsequently commissioned CRIPSAT to evaluate the implications of the national science curriculum in England and Wales, focussing on Key Stages 1-3 (ages 5-14). Since then, the NCC's successor, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA, has awarded CRIPSAT a series of contracts to develop national assessments of children in England at Key Stages 2-3 (ages 11-14).

In 1999, the Qualifications Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales invited CRIPSAT to develop formative assessment materials, for use by teachers on an optional basis. Last year, the Authority commissioned CRIPSAT to develop national assessment materials for Wales‚ to assess the whole science curriculum at Key Stage 2. If we develop sufficiently imaginative tests, they should have a beneficial bow-wave effect on classroom practice, says Terry Russell. The tests CRIPSAT develops will be used for national assessments in Wales from 2003-05.

Focus on Africa

CRIPSAT was recently commissioned by the Department of International Development to develop baseline literacy and numeracy assessments for use in sub-Saharan Africa. The Department is keen to promote universal primary education, explains Terry Russell. This raises issues about the number of primary schools, their location, about persuading children to go to school, and dissuade them from dropping out. Part of the situation involves changing the text book-based, handed down from on high approach to teaching which is still common in developing countries, and introducing an approach which engages children's interest. It's also vital to complement summative (end of course) assessments with formative assessment measures which give teachers a better understanding of their pupils' cognitive development and an opportunity to influence it on an ongoing basis. CRIPSAT is developing these assessment in collaboration with colleges in Ghana, Zambia and Malawi.